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Engineers into International Community of Science Yugui Guo
1. Overseas Study The Chinese government's decision to send thousands of students for overseas study represents a historical continuity rather than a radical departure in modern China's cultural policy (modern history in China is considered from 1840). For over a century, with the sole exception of the period from 1967 to 1974, Chinese students have been studying abroad, frequently in large numbers. The roles played by the generations (I divided them into five generations in my publication) of returned Chinese students educated abroad in the social, economic, scientific and political modernization, in general, and the educational modernization, in particular, have been historically important. For example: ¡¡he first generation?overthrew the Qing Dynasty and opened the modern educational system in China; ¡¡he second generation?went along ¡¡he third route?leading to the establishment of the People¡¡ Republic of China in 1949, thus changing China¡¡ future and deciding its fate as well; ¡¡he third generation?has made great contributions to the development of the scientific and educational cause in China; and ¡¡he fourth generation? gradually moving away from the Soviet ideas and model introduced by themselves in the past, has reopened the door to the outside world and is implementing the reforms along the Western lines in many cases. In contrast to earlier periods, today's overseas study (¡¡he fifth generation? has four striking features: A) First is its vast scale and scopeDuring the period from 1978 to the end of 1998, about 320,000 students, 27 times as much as the figure (11,900) in the 28-year period from 1950 to 1977, went to more than 100 countries and areas for overseas study, with the United States as their largest host country. More than half of them were enrolled in American universities. Table 1 clearly shows the dramatically increasing enrollment and ratio of Chinese students among total foreign students in American universities from 1980 to 1999: the enrollment increased 18.4 times from 2,770 to 51,001 while the proportion rose from less than 0.9 percent to 10.1 percent. In comparison, the total number of foreign students in the United States increased from 311,880 to 490,933 or by only 57.4 percent in the same period. Therefore, students from China became by far the fastest growing community on American campus. Although Chinese students have, in general during 1994 and 1996, been the second largest foreign student population after Japan, during the period of 1989 and 1994 they took the lead in total foreign student enrollment in America. The relatively decline of Chinese students in enrollment after 1994 was affected by the situation in China where the second reform tide after 1992 led to more opportunities in both job market and graduate studies at home. As a result, the wave of overseas students cooled down to some extent in those years. However, starting from 1998, Chinese students again retook the first place. Table 1: Chinese Students Enrolled in American Universities: 1980-81
to 1998-99
2. Institute of International Education, Open Door Education, 1999. B) The second characteristic is its advanced educational levelThe majority of Chinese students go abroad for graduate rather undergraduate studies. For example, among those Chinese students who were enrolled in American universities in 1995-96 academic year, graduate students accounted for more than 80 percent (NSB, 1998). Graduate training, especially at doctoral level, is associated with research. The data in Figure 1 show that, from 1988 to 1995, American universities granted Chinese students 14,705 doctoral degrees, with 92.5 percent (13,598) in S&E fields. Many Chinese graduates continued their research activities as postdoctoral students after earning their Ph.D. degrees. Source: National Science Foundation/SRS, Survey of Earned Doctorates. 1998. C) The third feature is the rise and spread of various Chinese students and scholars organizations in the North AmericaSince the mid-80s, especially after former President Bush issued the Chinese Student Protection Act in 1992, the non-returned Chinese students, scholars and professionals in the United States have been growing in numbers and influence in the American society. Over the past 10-odd years, they have formed a numerous academic and professionals associations in the United States. They differ in level: some are nationwide, some are regional. Most of them are concentrated in the major metropolitan cities and hi-tech developed areas such as Washington, DC, New York City, Chicago, San Francisco, Texas, Silicon Valley, etc. These networks are defined by academic field (e.g. Chinese Association of Science and Technology), Chinese alma mater (e.g. Fudan University Alumni Association in America), and geographical region (e.g. Beijingnese Association). In most cases, these associations play their unique roles in three areas: a. providing channels through which to establish and strengthen the relationship between Chinese students and scholars here in the US, corresponding institutions and scholars in the international academic community, and particularly their colleagues back in China;Thus, these organizations serve as channels to help develop their academic disciplines and economic links in China and promote US-China ties. D) The last but the most important issue concerning today¡¡ overseas study is the serious problem of brain drainAt least half of Chinese students are extending their stays or trying to seek permanent residency in foreign countries. According to incomplete statistics by the Chinese Embassy in the USA, in the past 20 years, about 160,000 Chinese students came to the United States to study, and by 1998 only 30,000 of them returned home. According to data from the US National Science Foundation for the period 1990-96, the percentages of foreign S&E doctoral recipients planning to remain in the United States increased: over 68 percent planned to locate in the United States, and nearly 44 percent had firm offers to do so. The data in Table 2 show that, in 1990, 41 percent of over 1,000 Chinese S&E doctoral recipients in U. S. universities had firm plans to remain in the United States. By 1996, about 56 percent of the over 3,000 Chinese S&E doctoral recipients from U.S. universities had firm plans to remain in the United States. The underlying cause for this shift is the large number of Chinese students granted permanent residence status in the United States in 1992 following China's response to student demonstrations (NSB, 1998). The employment of the Chinese professionals and scholars ranges extensively from academic institutions, government agencies, industrial companies to post-doctoral research. Other than the clear political factor, the reasons for the rapidly growing non-returning Chinese students abroad include the relatively poor working and living conditions in China. This whole phenomenon of overseas students who do not return has severely damaged domestic teaching, research and R&D. Given the scarcity of human resources in the country and its ambitious economic development program, such a large outflow of high-level specialized personnel represents a severe brain drain problem for China (Cao, 1996). Table 2: Chinese Ph.D. Recipients from U.S. Universities
Who Plan to Stay in the U.S.A. (1990-96)
Total Ph.D. recipients Plan to stay in U.S. Firm plans to stay in U.S.
Total Ph.D. recipients Plan to stay in U.S. Firm plans to stay in U.S.
Total Ph.D. recipients Plan to stay in U.S. Firm plans to stay in U.S.
Total Ph.D. recipients Plan to stay in U.S. Firm plans to stay in U.S.
1994 1995 1996
2. How to Turn Brain Drain into Brain Gain? Most Third World countries have experienced brain drain for long time. However, the past 20 years saw some changes in this phenomenon. In some Asian countries and regions including China, the growingly reverse flow of foreign-educated students has been making it possible to turn brain drain into brain gain. The phenomena of study abroad and international mobility of scientists and engineers in China are correlated with each other. Both of them have been affected by many societal factors. Of the many factors affecting the movement of overseas students and scholars, economy always plays a critical role. South Korea and Taiwan had a similar problem of brain drain before mid-1980s. However, when their per capita GNP reached about US$4,000, their overseas students and scholars started to flow back home. Figure 2 shows the
historical trends of Taiwan students entering and leaving the USA in the
period between 1971 and 1997. Until the 1990s, Taiwan had suffered
a serious brain drain for almost forty years. It was reported that
between 1950 and 1980 the Ministry of Education issued approvals to 63,061
college graduates to study abroad, but only 7,240 of them returned.
During this period, the brain drain from students not returning from study
abroad reached a high of 90 percent. The brain drain slowed gradually
in the 1980s: it decreased to 80 percent between 1981 and 1987.
Sources: 1. Ministry of Education, Educational Statistics of the ROC, 1997, pp 54, 56-57, 60. Source: Li, Chen-ching, ¡¡eturning Home after Studying in the USA: Reverse Brain Drain in Taiwan,?in Cultural & Educational Digest, Cultural Division of Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in the United States, 1995a, pp 20-24.However, it was only at the end of 1980s, that Taiwan started to benefit from its international students and their connection. A return flow of American-trained scientists and engineers occurred in recent years. There are number of societal variables that appear to account for this change. The most important variable is the economy. The statistics in Figures 2 and 3 show a close correlation between economic development and the return flow. The strong increase of per capita GNP since the late 1980s put Taiwan join in the group of NIEs. Rapid economic development has offered a great number of job opportunities for returning students with advanced degrees and professional expertise. The nationwide ¡¡en Construction Project?infrastructure development, together with the establishment of the Hsinchu Science-based Industrial Park in 1980, opened many new avenues for young returned students to start new challenging careers. According to the 1994 Annual Report of the Science-based Industrial Park, 1.05% of the employees hold Ph.D. degrees, 10.08% have masters degrees, and 17.92% of them have bachelor degrees. Of the total 34,564 employees hired to work in the Science-based Industrial Park, a large number of junior professionals were from the United States. However, after 1995, the number of returning students dropped sharply to 2,185 in 1996. The reasons for this decline in returning students seem complex. There are three possible explanations. First, the job market in Taiwan for returning students is not as exciting as it was before 1992. The returnees had to compete for fewer jobs. Second, the economy in America steadily improved in recent years, providing more job opportunities. Third, but not necessarily least, is that the decline could be attributed to the military crisis on the Taiwan Strait in 1995 and1996. Currently, China has a per capita GNP of about US$850. If China continues to reform its economic structure, relying on scientific and technological progress in its transition to a market economy, the demand for specialized personnel will be high. Considering the special circumstances of China, it seems likely that, when China has a per capita GNP of about US$2,000, China will turn brain drain to brain gain and benefit from the reverse flow of overseas Chinese students and scholars. 4. Good Alternative: to Join in International Scientific Community¡¡ Circulation In 1996, the Chinese government strategy started to shift from concentrating on the return of overseas Chinese students and professionals, as well as blocking the outflow of scholars and students, to tolerating their migration, optimizing their contributions and improving the home environment (Cao, 1996). A new policy of 'supporting study-abroad, encouraging return, free movement in and out of the country' was introduced as early as in 1992 and the government made a clear connection between supporting study-abroad and the nation's strategic development in the 21st century. This new policy represents the most relaxed policy on study-abroad in China since 1978 and, to some degree, encourages China's high-level specialized personnel to join in the international scientific community, which has generated a strong tendency of international mobility of scientists and engineers in China. This is demonstrated in several ways, including the following: A) Reform in Overseas Study Policies In 1996, the State Overseas Study Foundation was established to select and sponsor qualified scholars nationwide for overseas study. Most of them are visiting scholars and the length of stay is usually one year. Each candidate has to sign a contract with the Foundation, along with a guarantor. If the candidate fails to return on schedule, the guarantor has to help the Foundation to get the candidate return, or pay fines stipulated in the contract. In 1998 alone, 1,709 scholars are selected and sponsored for overseas study. The data show that the return ratio of those sponsored by the Foundation since 1996 is 85.7 percent. All those who remained have paid off the fines (Chisa Website, Sept. 15, 1998). According to recent report that in 1999, 1,750 scholars were sponsored and sent to 42 countries for study and 2,300 more are planning be selected and sponsored in 2000 (Sohu Website, Jan. 25, 2000). B) New Policies on Absorbing Talents Since 1992 on, many educational and research institutions and organizations in China formed career delegations which visited the USA, Britain, Germany, Japan and other developed countries to recruit overseas Chinese students and professionals. Since then, an increasing number of Chinese students and professionals are going back to China for either long-term work assignments or short-term academic and business visits. For example, between 1993 and 1999, more than 20,000 overseas Chinese students and scholars made such visits. From France alone, 65 Ph.Ds. returned to China in 1994. From 1995 to 1998, the returnees increased by 13 percent each year. In 1998 along, 7,400-odd returned (http://202.84.17.76:3000/xfznp/htm/xfss0159.c16.htm). From 28 to 30 of December, 1999, more than 800 foreign-educated Chinese students and professionals (60 percent have doctoral degree) from 20 countries attended the ¡¡xhibition on Science and Technology?held jointly by the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Science and Technology, the Ministry of Personnel and the Guangzhou Municipal Government in Guangzhou. These overseas experts brought and presented over 600 projects and patents on the Exhibition for cooperation and investment (http://www.china.org.cn/News/Edu/1229/30.htm). Many institutions in China have taken measures to improve home environment in attempts to attract overseas Chinese students and professionals. The Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) is seeking an extra 2 billion Yuan ($240 million) a year for recruiting 600 bright young researchers from overseas from 1998 to 2000 (Nature, 1998). This the largest amount of money the government has ever provided for a project aimed at attracting overseas personnel. By the end of 1999, the CAS has already attracted 331 young overseas scientists to work at the academy under the ¡¡undred Talent Program,?with 70% of them directly from abroad (http://www.networkchinese.com/chineseprof/policy/overseas.html). The Ministry of Education announced in August 1998 that it would establish a special appointed-professorship system. Within next 3-5 years, 300-500 outstanding young researchers would be selected from both home and abroad and granted the rank of specially appointed professorships by key Chinese universities (Chisa Website, Aug. 8, 1998). Many local governments in China also have established special policies to attract overseas Chinese students. Taking Shanghai alone, according to a recent report as of December 1999, over 17,000 students have returned. This number takes one sixth of all returnees in China. In addition, several thousands of overseas Chinese scholars have arranged business visits with the municipal government, and 750 have registered and opened their businesses. Most of these represent 'hi-tech' companies and consulting firms (World Journal, Dec. 3, 1999). With their newly acquired knowledge and expertise, these returned students and scholars have been playing key roles in China's higher education, scientific research and production management. For example, of the 36 institutions of higher learning directly administered by the Ministry of Education, more than half were headed by returned scholars. In many universities, over 80 percent of academic backbones and chairpersons have some year's overseas experience. By the end of 1998, 80% of the returned staff in the CAS had been granted with domestic awards and patents or had their papers published in the first-class academic journals both at home and abroad. These returned staff undertook or chaired 9,395 research projects, of which 1,383 were national priority projects and 2,538 dedicated ones defined by China National Natural Science Foundation (China Science and Technology Newsletter, No. 205, November 20, 1999, pp1-2). Returned Chinese Scholars have also become Backbones of China S&T University. It is reported that recent years have annually witnessed more than 30 Chinese scholars who had finished their doctorate studies abroad register their presence at China Science and Technology University. As shown by statistics, the return rate of visiting scholars sent out by the University has reached 80% and above. Approximately one hundred overseas Chinese scholars have been honored by the University as visiting professors or senior scholars. Thanks to persistent efforts made by the University management, 12 of the returned Chinese scholars have been granted with the financial support by National Excellent Young Scientists Foundation for their major projects at national or ministerial levels and16 others with the support of ?Hundred Talents Program?sponsored by Chinese Academy of Sciences for nurturing trans-century academic leaders. In addition, 8 of these returned scholars have been selected by ¡¡ational Millions of Talents Program?and 20 others awarded with national or CAS¡¡ young scientists prizes (China Science and Technology Newsletter, No. 190, June 20, 1999, p 2). C) Acceptance of Foreign Students for Study in China From 1978 to 1997, more than 258,000 foreign students came from over 160 countries and regions to China for study at different levels, including baccalaureate, masters and doctoral programs as well as short-term programs. In 1997 alone, over 43,000 foreign students, 35. 8 times as much as the figure (1,200) in 1978, were studying in China. Of the 4,569 foreign students sponsored by Chinese government in 1997, 4.9 percent were enrolled in doctoral programs, 14.5 percent in master degree programs, and 33 percent in bachelor degree programs. In addition, in the same year, there were 39,035 self-financed, of which 2 percent were pursuing doctoral degrees, 4.6 percent master¡¡ degrees, 28 percent bachelor¡¡ degrees, and 0.3 percent short-term diplomas (Chisa website, June 5, 1998). Other than the foreign students studying in China, there are also growing students from overseas regions of Hong Kong, Macao and Taiwan coming to study in mainland China. During the ten-year period from 1988 to 1997, 403 students from these three regions were enrolled in Chinese universities. Most of them were graduate students (Chisa website, June 5, 1998). D) Importation of Foreign Talents and Exportation Home Talents During the last two decades of opening and reform, China had invited foreign experts of 662,000 person/time on a cumulative basis and dispatched professionals and management people of 300,000 person/time to be trained abroad. In the last two years, the intelligence import ranked the largest in the history of the country by inviting foreign experts of 170,000 person/time and sending out trainees of 80,000 person/times (China Science and Technology Newsletter, No. 178, February 20, 1999, p 6). The CAS has already invited more than 30 overseas experts from North America and Europe to become science advisors, and is planning to expand such cooperation. The CAS will attract overseas scientists who wish to work in China for an extended period of time, as well as those who can only come on a short-term basis. The academy will also invite overseas scholars as senior visiting scholars and help them establish research groups and laboratories in China (http://www.networkchinese.com/chineseprof/policy/overseas.html). In addition to foreign talent importation, there is also domestic talent exportation. In 1996, about 7,000 Chinese teachers and experts working in various fields were sent abroad to teach or to give short-term lectures. During the period of 1978 to 1997, the cumulative number of Chinese scholars going abroad to attend international conferences and the cumulative number of foreign participants coming to China to attend international conferences hosted by Chinese institutions both exceeded 11,000 (Liu, 1998). E) Mushroom Growth of Favored Programs for Talents Absorption and Nurturing Aiming at establishing an integrated system of attracting and nurturing great talents, the Chinese government has been setting up the China¡¡ nationwide talents absorption and nurturing system which is made up of various favored programs. Of them, the following two are the most important: Yangtze River Scholars Award Program was co-founded by Ministry of Finance and patriotic industrialist Li Jiacheng from Hong Kong and implemented by Ministry of Education, the Program is aiming at absorbing, selecting, nurturing and turning out high level and creative young and middle aged talents from both at home and abroad in 1998. Up to the mid-1999, Ministry of Education has created special professor positions with the offer of salary over RMB100,000 plus other benefits in 450 disciplines at 113 higher learning institutions and 73 professors recruited under the program have started their work after signing contracts with their parent schools. As briefed by Mr. Guan Peijun, Deputy Director-General of Dept. of Personnel, Ministry of Education, according to the Program, Ministry of Education will create 500 to 1000 special professor positions in the nation's higher learning institutions within 3 to 5 years (¡¡hina Science and Technology Newsletter,?No. 188, May 30, 1999, p 2). Hundred, Thousand and Ten Thousand Talents Program is a senior talents nurturing initiative co-sponsored in December, 1995, by Chinese Ministry of Personnel, Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Finance, State Planning Commission, China Science and Technology Association and China National Natural Science Foundation. The Program is aiming at by the end of 20th century bringing out from both home and abroad a hundred outstanding young scientists of major influence in world scientific community, ranking in the frontiers of world science and technology, a thousand academic or technical leaders of domestically advanced level and disciplinary superiority and ten thousands candidates for academic or technical leaders, playing backbone or core roles in their disciplines. It is briefed that the Program has by May 1999, selected 1,077 candidates, many of whom are advisors for doctorate students, experts enjoying special governmental subsidies or young and middle aged scientists who have achieved outstanding results (¡¡hina Science and Technology Newsletter,?No. 188, May 30, 1999, pp 2-3). F) Opening Domestic Education Market to Outsiders In recent years, the Chinese government has provided foreign colleges and universities with the opportunities of recruiting students directly in China. Starting from 1999, China has held a series of international education exhibitions, which aim at promoting education exchanges and joint-sponsorship of higher learning institutions between China and other countries. For example, in early 1999, the Chinese Service Center for Scholarly Exchange hosted in Beijing the first international education exhibition, which attracted over 10 foreign colleges and universities of 16 countries. However, in 2000, a great large number of foreign universities strive to hold or take part in China¡¡ international education exhibitions. From 26 to 27 of February, ¡¡he 2000 British Education Exhibition?with nearly 100 British universities participated was held in Beijing, at the same time, ¡¡he China 2000 International Education Exhibition?was held from February 26 to March 12 in five Chinese cities including Beijing, Shanghai, Chengdu, Xian and Wuhan. Over 160 universities from 18 countries including the United States, the United Lingdom, Canada, France, Germany, Netherlands, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa would participate (http://english.china.com/cdc/en/news/0,1073,7542-100001,00.html). From 17 to 1820 of March ¡¡he First American Education Exhibition?would be held respectively in Shanghai and Beijing. 31 universities including Dartmouth College, University of Maryland, Georgetown University, and Boston University would take part in. According to Shunxing Li, secretary-general of the Chinese Service Center for Scholarly Exchange, ¡¡he Australian Education Exhibition?would be held in Beijing and Shanghai in April and another international education exhibition would be held in Changchun (http://news.sohu.com/20000223/100015.html). All these shows have created sansation among the Chinese students and their parents and strongly promoted study abroad. In 1999, the UK Embassy in China along issued over 8,000 student visas, increased by 60 percent as issued in 1998. G) Jointly-run Institutions In addition to the international exchanges, some forms of international cooperation also took shape. Many Chinese colleges and universities seek foreign partners to improve their educational and research quality and upgrade their education level as well. An example of the inter-institutional collaboration is the Nanjing-Johns Hopkins Center for Chinese and American Studies. Opened in the fall of 1986, it is jointly run by Nanjing University of China and Johns Hopkins University of the United States. The Center offered a two-semester, graduate-level curriculum in culture, economics, politics, foreign policy, international relations and law, modern history and U. S. -China relations. The American and international students made up half of the total student body while the Chinese students made up the other half. At present, about 100 students are enrolled in the center each year. Up to date, about 1,000 students graduated from the center. The author's personal experience in meeting American graduates from this Center has been that they represent substantial expertise on Chinese affairs and make contributions to the promotion of mutual understanding and friendship between China and America. As early as 1993, some Chinese top universities such as Beijing University, Shanghai Jiaotong University and Nanjing University started to offer three-year Chinese Master of Business Administration programs for Mandarin-speaking managers in Singapore, first, then Malaysia. Xiamen University started to offer a six-year degree correspondence course in Chinese language and literature in Singapore in 1994, in collaboration with local institutions. This is the first time that Chinese universities have offered Chinese degrees to individuals outside China (Straits Times Weekly Edition, 1994). H) Flow Back Through Involving in Global Economy Circulation The last but not the least is a new trend that, with growing foreign investment being made multi-national companies in R&D research and development centers or laboratories in China, more and more overseas Chinese professionals have been recruited and set back to work in China. According to the latest report from China in December 1999 that, with the globalization of the world economy, major multi-national companies have been extending their investment in activities from manufacturing to training, research and development. The new trend is to set up their own research and development centers in China. For example, the Canadian Nortel invested in its North Telecommunication Research and Development Center in Beijing in 1994, the American IBM opened its IBM (China) Research Center in Beijing in 1995, Since 1996, the following multi-national companies such as Intel, Sun Microsystems, P&G, DuPont, Nokia, Ericcson, Motorola and Sonny have successively established their own research and development centers and laboratories in China. The French Rhone-Poulenc Rorer has recently made an ambitious plan of building its own technology parks in Beijing and Shanghai, which includes a hi-tech silicon steel plant, four chemical laboratories and a business executive building. The more exciting news was that Intel declared in May 1998 that it would make an investment of $50 million in establishing the Intel research and development institute in Shanghai within the next five years while Microsoft set up the Microsoft-China Research Institute in Beijing in the end of 1998 and it would also make an investment of $80 million in the institute within the next six years to attract up to about 100 scientists (World Journal, November 29, 1999). These foreign-invested R&D institutes of centers might differ in terms of size and type, but they bear the same characteristics: almost all of their employees are Chinese researchers and many of them have overseas experience. For example, Microsoft China Research Institute has at present 60 staff members. Among its senior research staff, 11 are from overseas. By November of 1999, Motorola had established 18 R&D institutes in different parts of China with a total staff of 650 and a large number of them were recruited and sent from abroad (¡¡hina Science and Technology Newsletter,?No. 205, November 20, 1999, p 2). Now, with China joining in the WTO shortly, more and more foreign companies will strive to open and expand their business, especially in hi-tech and professional areas in China. I am sure that, together with the new wave of foreign investment, the ever greater back-flow of foreign-trained Chinese scholars and professionals will be accompanied. As mentioned above, China has in recent years started to join in the international scientific community's circulation, but the scale is still limited in comparison with some other countries and regions. There is still a long way for China to go. However, to join in international scientific community¡¡ circulation is inevitably a good alternative. 5. Eventual Tendency: to Integrate into International Community of Science While keeping the whole world in view, the number of the people who are lucky to have the opportunities of either going abroad for study or joining in international scientific community¡¡ circulation are always small anywhere and anytime. How to have the whole Chinese science community integrated with the international science community? With the participation of China¡¡ economy in the global economy system by joining in the World Trade Organization soon, the Chinese science and technology will inevitably follow the suit. One of the historical missions of ¡¡he fifth generation?is to help to bring Chinese scientific community into international scientific community¡¡ circulation and, eventually, to integrate them with international community of science. Today, the high-tech, especially the invention of Internet could make it true. Next, I am going to present an amazing device, ¡¡OS Program? which will make your dream true. References: Cao, Xiaonan, ¡¡ebating 'Brain Drain' in the Context of Globalization', Compare, Vol. 26, No. 3, 1996, pp 269-285. http://english.china.com/cdc/en/news/0,1073,7542-100001,00.html | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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